书城政治人的安全与联合国
10768400000016

第16章 『人的安全』的考古学研究(8)

【231】 Security Council resolution 307(1971).

【232】 Wheeler,Saving Strangers,64-65 .

【233】 ICISS,The Responsibility to Protect,2:58 .

【234】 Cited in ibid .,2:59 .

【235】大会在随后关于柬埔寨的讨论中,也提及了对越南的三位战争盟友在其中所起的作用:老挝依赖越南;民主德国屠杀试图以越境的形式逃离该国高压政治的公民;阿富汗的极权政府也牵涉其中(随着苏联的援助不断增加),大规模屠杀持反对政见的本国公民。

【236】 ICISS,The Responsibility to Protect,2:62 .

【237】关于尼日利亚内战的国际方面的材料,可参见John Stremlau,The International Politics of the Nigerian Civil War,1967-1970(Princeton,N .J .:Princeton University Press,1977)。

【238】 David Rieff,A Bed for the Night:Humanitarianism in Crisis(New York:Vin-tage,2002),71 .

【239】关于一般的处理情况,可参见A .Rigo Sureda,The Evolution of the Right to Self-Determination:A Study of United Nations Practice(Leiden,Netherlands:A .W .Si-jthoff,1973)。

【240】关于联合国对苏伊士运河事件后英国去殖民地化进程的影响,更具说服力的叙述,可参见Asahiko Hanzawa,“An Invisible Surrender:The United Nations and the End of the British Empire,1956-1963”(D .Phil .dissertation,Oxford University,2002)。

【241】关于苏联对外政策转变的讨论,可参见S .Neil MacFarlane,Superpower Rivalry and Third World Radicalism:The Idea of National Liberation(Baltimore,Md .:Johns Hopkins University Press,1985)。

【242】”Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples,”GA resolution 1514(XV),14 December 1960 .

【243】 Idid .,operative paragraph 6 .

【244】法国与波兰尤其反对斯雷莎和萨尔兰的联盟运动。关于进一步的讨论,可参见Jennifer Jackson Preece,National Minorities and the European State System(Oxford:Ox-ford University Press,1988),87-88。

【245】 Patrick Thornberry,The Council of Europe and Minorities(Strasbourg,France:Council of Europe,1994),2 .

【246】 Dwight D .Eisenhower,“The Chance for Peace,”16 April 1953,available online at:http://www.eisenhower.archives.gov/chance.htm,accessed 13 March 2005.

【247】 Independent Commission on International Development Issues,North-South:A Programme for Survival(London:Pan Books,1980),16 .

【248】 Universal Declaration of Human Rights,preamble and Articles 22-26,available online at:http://www.un.org/Overview/rights.html,accessed 15May 2005.

【249】 Richard Jolly,Louis Emmerji,Dharam Ghai,and Frédéric Lapeyre,UN Contri-butions to Development Thinking and Practice(Bloomington:Indiana University Press,2004).这方面的分析受益于本书对这个主题的处理方法。

【250】对领导者来说,经济发展的目标往往被用来当做权力增长的需要。

【251】 Paul Streeten,“The Evolution of Development Thought,”in Streeten,Thinking about Development(Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1995),18 .

【252】 Ibid .,20 .

【253】 Mahbub ul Haq,Reflectionson Human Development(Oxford:Oxford Universi-ty Press,1995),24 .

【254】 UN,Technical Assistance for Economic Development(New York:United Na-tions,1949),8 .本报告反复强调,一方面是生活水平与就业率的联系,另一方面是国际和平与安全的联系。

【255】 UN,Measures for the Economic Development of Underdeveloped Countries:Report of a Group of Experts Appointed by the Secretary-General of the United Nations(New York:United Nations,1951).

【256】 Streeten,“The Evolution of Development Thought,”20 .

【257】 UN,The Development Decade:Proposals for Action(New York:United Na-tions,1962).这里我们可以观察到和平条约与《1994年人类发展报告》的出入。

【258】 U Thant,“Foreword,”in The Development Decade .

【259】国际劳工组织在1969年发起了“世界就业计划”。

【260】 Independent Commission on International Development Issues,North-South:A Programme for Survival .

【261】保罗·斯特(Paul Streeten)指出,在这方面,基于发达国家经验的就业、收入分配理论并不一定适用于发展中国家,在后者,许多有工作的人仍然生活在贫困中。Streenten,“The Evolution of Development Thought,”18 .在这方面,实现这些目标需要更多有针对性的努力,以解决贫困问题。

【262】 Idid .,19 .

【263】 See the Society for International Development(SID)North-South Roundtable pa-pers:Khadija Haq and Uner Kirdar,eds .,Human Development,the Neglected Dimension(Rome:SID,1986);Human Development:A djustment and Growth(Rome:SID,1987);and Managing Human Development(Rome:SID,1988).

【264】 International Commission on Development Issues,North-South:A Programme for Survival,14 .布兰特报告(The Brandt report)同样认为,发展的重点在于人,重要的是要避免将增长和发展混为一谈。Ibid .23-24,124-125 .

【265】 World Commission on Environment and Development,Our Common Future:From One Earth to One World(Oxford:Oxford University Press,1987),43 .

【266】 Ibid .,7,43-54,298 .

【267】华盛顿共识由美国财政部、国际货币基金组织和世界银行共同提出,强调资产私有化的经济共同发展的新自由主义观,减少部门的赤字,对经济活动放松管制和开放的国际市场竞争。更广泛的讨论议程及其对发展中国家的影响,可参见Joseph Stiglitz,Globaliza-tion and Its Discontents(New York:Norton,2002)。

【268】 Richard Falk,“The Challenge of Genocide and Genocidal Politics in an Era of Globalization,”in Human Rights and Global Politics,edited by Tim Dunne and Nicholas Wheeler(Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1999),179 .

【269】 Michael Ignatieff,“Human Rights as Idolatry,”in Ignatieff,Human Rights as Politics and Idolatry,edited and introduced by Amy Gutmann(Princeton,N .J .:Princeton University Press,2001),65 .

【270】”Source List and Detailed Death Tolls for the Twentieth Century Hemoclysm,”availa-ble online at:http://users.erols.com/mwhite28/warstat1.htm,accessed 21 April 2005.

【271】 Adam Roberts,“Land Warfare:From Hague to Nuremberg,”in The Laws of War:Constraintson Warfare in the Western World,edited by Michael Howard,George J . Andreopoulos,and Mark Shulman(New Haven,Conn .:Yale University Press,1994),121 .关于一战前的军火控制的叙述主要来自罗伯特的论文。

【272】 Tami Davis Biddle,“Air Power”in Howard,Andreopoulos,and Shulman,eds .,T he L aw s o f W ar,142-145 .

【273】 Ibid .,144 .

【274】 Ibid .

【275】 Roberts,“Land Warfare,”125 .

【276】”关于战时放弃使用重量低于400克爆炸弹的声明”(The St .Petersburg Declara-tion),14 December 1868,in Roberts and Guelff,eds .,Documents on the Laws of War,55。

【277】 Roberts,“Land Warfare,”125 .

【278】来源列表及20世纪大屠杀详细的死亡人数。

【279】 Cited in Biddle,“Air Power,”145 .

【280】 Guilio Douhet,The Command of the Air(Washington,D .C .:Office of Air Force History,1983),61 .

【281】 Eric Markusen and David Kopf,The Holocaust and Strategic Bombing(Boulder,Colo .:Westview Press,1995),152-154 .

【282】 See Ronald Schaffer,Wings of Judgment:American Bombing in World War II(New York:Oxford University Press,1985).尤其是第五章“德国的轰炸:向杜黑式战争的过渡”,其中对美国在向杜黑式战争屈服后的内部争论作出了精辟的分析。

【283】 Ibid .,94-100 .

【284】 Biddle,“Air Power,”154 .

【285】 Ibid .日本受空袭的损失,又可参见Schaffer,W ings o f Judgment,Chapter 7。

【286】 Michael Walzer,Just and Unjust Wars(New York:Basic Books,1977),255-263;Geoffrey Best,Humanity in Warfare(London:Weidenfeld and Nicolson,1980),279-284 .

【287】 Best,H umanity in W ar f are,285 .

【288】 Deborah Dwork and Robert Jan van Pelt,Holocaust:A History(London:John M urray,2002),Chapter 8 .

【289】 Daniel Jonah Goldhagen,Hitler’s Willing Executioners:Ordinary Germans and the Holocaust(London:Abacus,1996),420-425 .

【290】 Frank Chalk and Kurt Jonassohn,The History and Sociology of Genocide(New Haven,Conn .:Yale University Press,1990),325 .

【291】 Ian Kershaw,“The Extinction of Human Rights in Nazi Germany,”in Historical Change and Human Rights,edited by Olwen Hufton(New York:Basic Books,1995),233 .

【292】 Goldhagen,Hitler’s Willing Executioners:Ordinary Germans and the Holo-caust,418 .

【293】 Geoffrey Best,Nuremberg and A fter:The Continuing History of War Crimes and Crimes A gainst Humanity(Reading,Pa .:University of Reading,1984),4-5 .

【294】 Henry Kissinger,White House Years(Boston:Little,Brown,1979),215 .

【295】 Ibid .,216 .

【296】 McGeorge Bundy,Danger and Survival:Choices about the Bomb in the First Fi f ty Years(New York:Random House,1988).

【297】关于柏林危机,可参见Bundy,Danger and Survival,esp.358-390;关于古巴导弹危机,可参见Raymond Garthoff,Reflections on the Cuban Missile Crisis(Washington,D .C .:The Brookings Institution,1989),esp.154-192;Bundy,Danger and Survival,391-462。

【298】 See Mark Franchetti,“Cool Hero of Cuba,”The Sunday Times(London),20 October 2002,29 .

【299】 Spurgeon Keeny and Wolfgang Panofsky,“MAD versus NUTS,”in The Nuclear Controversy:A Foreign A f f airs Reader,edited by William Bundy(New York:New Amer-ican Library,1985),3-20 .

【300】 Carl Sagan,“Nuclear War and Climatic Catastrophe:Some Policy Implications,”in Bundyed,The Nuclear Controversy,117-152 .

【301】 Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists,“1984:Three minutes to Midnight,”available online at:http://www.thebulletin.org/doomsday_clock/timeline.htm,accessed 12 April 2005.

【302】 National Conference of Catholic Bishops,The Challenge of Peace:God’s Prom-ise and Our Response(Washington,D .C .:United States Catholic Conference,1983).

【303】 Ibid .,i .

【304】 Ibid .,iii-iv,56-59 .

【305】 Jonathan Schell,The Fate of the Earth(London:Picador,1982).

【306】 Ibid .,143 .

【307】 David Krieger,“Nuclearism and Its Insecurities,”in Worlds Apart:Human Se-curity and Global Governance,edited by Laura Reed and Majid Tehranian(London:I .B . Tauris,1999),121 .

【308】 Ibid .

【309】 Canberra Commission on the Elimination of Nuclear Weapons,Report o f the Canberra Commission on the Elimination of Nuclear Weapons(Canberra,Australia:De-partment of Foreign Affairs and Trade,1996),18 .

【310】 James Hoge,“Nuclear Terrorism:Counting Down to the New Armageddon,”New York Times,Sunday Book Review,5 September 2004,available online at:http://www.nuclear-terrorism.org/nyt.htm.

【311】 Astri Suhrke,“Human Security and the Interests of States,”Security Dialogue 30(1999):266 .

【312】 Geoffrey Robertson,Crimes against Humanity:The Struggle for Global Justice(London:Penguin Books,2002),39 .

【313】 Ibid .

【314】两部经典著作分别为汉斯·摩根索(Hans Morgenthau)的《国家间的政治:权力与和平之争》(New York:Alfred Knopf,1978)第三版和肯尼斯·沃尔兹(Kenneth Waltz)的《国际政治理论》(Reading,Pa .:Addison-Wesley,1979)。

【315】 CitedinHowardZinn,APeople’sHistoryoftheUnitedStatesfrom1492tothe Present,2nd ed .(Essex,U K:Pearson Education Limited,1996),542 .

【316】 Robertson,Crimes against H umanity,59-63 .要了解美国与欧洲的人权项目的比较,可参见Kathryn Sikkink,“The Power of Principled Ideas:Human Rights Policies in the United States and Western Europe,”in Ideas and Foreign Policy:Beliefs,Institutions and Political Change,edited by Judith Goldstein and Robert O .Keohane(Ithaca,N .Y .:Cornell University Press,1993)。

【317】国际红十字会既不是政府机构也不是非政府组织,它比大赦国际(组织)早一个世纪成立,并于战争期间担任了大量救治伤亡和囚犯的工作。

【318】 See Sellars,The Rise and Rise of Human Rights .Chapter 1 .在联合国宪章的起草过程中非政府组织起到了非常出色且反传统的作用。

【319】 Stanley Hoffmann,“The Hell of Good Intentions,”Foreign Policy,No .29(Winter 1977-1978):3-26 .

【320】 Sellars,The Rise and Rise of Human Rights,Chapter 6 .

【321】 Ibid .,134 .

【322】 The Independent Commission on Disarmament and Security Issues,Common Se-curity:A Blueprint for Survival(New York:Simon and Schuster,1982).

【323】 Mohamad Ayoob,“The Security Problematic of the Third World,”World Poli-tics 43(January 1991):257-283 .

【324】 David Dewitt,“Comprehensive,Common,and Cooperative Security,”The Pa-cific Review 5(1994):1-15 .

【325】 Dewi Fortuna Anwar,“Human Security:An Intractable Problem in Asia,”in A-sian Security Order:Instrumental and Normative Features,edited by Muthiah Alagappa(Stanford,Calif .:Stanford University Press,2003),539 .

【326】 Barry Buzan,People,States,and Fear,2nd ed .(Boulder,Colo .:Lynne Rien-ner,1991).

【327】 Ibid .,363 .

【328】 Ibid .,368 .

【329】 Ibid .

【330】 Richard Ullman,“Redefining Security,”International Security 8(Summer 1983):129-153 .

【331】 Ibid .,129 .

【332】 Ibid .

【333】 Ibid .,130-131 .自由与安全的权衡在最近的反恐战争中表现十分明显。

【334】 Ibid .,133 .

【335】 Jessica Tuchman Mathews,“Redefining Security,”Foreign A f f airs 68(Spring 1989):162 .

【336】 Ibid .

【337】 Ibid .,165 .

【338】 Ibid .,166 .

【339】 Ibid .,174 .

【340】 Social Science Research Council,“Global Security and Cooperation,”available on-line at:http://www.ssrc.org/programs/gsc,accessed 22 April 2005.

【341】该委员会成员是本书的作者之一,云丰空(Yuen Foong Khong)。本文也引用了理查德·贝茨(Richard Betts)的著作。“Should Strategic Studies Survive?”World Politics 50(October 1997):7-33 .

【342】 David Laitin,“Somalia:Civil War and International Intervention,”in Civil W ars,Insecurity,and Intervention,edited by Barbara Walter and Jack Snyder(New York:Columbia University Press,1999),148 .

【343】该叙述来自拉丁文。“Somalia:Civil War and International Intervention .”

【344】 Daniel Benjamin and Steven Simon,The A ge of Sacred Terror(New York:Random House,2002),120-122;Jane Boulden,Peace Enforcement:The United Nations Experience in Congo,Somalia,and Bosnia(Westport,Conn .:Praeger Publishers,2001),51-82 .

【345】 MacFarlane,Intervention in Contemporary World Politics,50 .

【346】 See Thomas Weiss,David Forsythe,and Roger Coate,The United Nations and Changing World Politics,3rd ed .(Boulder,Colo .:Westview Press,2001),Chapter 3 .

【347】 Robertson,Crimes against H umanity,76 .

【348】 2002年4月,荷兰战争文献研究所提出报告认为,政府应当为维和人员在斯雷布列尼察的懦弱行为负责,这使得整个荷兰内阁辞职。See Robertson,Crimes against H u-manity,82 .

【349】 Ibid .

【350】 James Fearon and David Laitin,“Ethnicity,Insurgency,and Civil War,”A meri-can Political Science Rev iew 97(Feburary 2003):75 .

【351】 MacFarlane,Intervention in Contemporary World Politics,50 .